The American Academy of Arts and Sciences (AAA&S) is one of the oldest learned societies in the United States.

An astronomer is a scientist who studies celestial objects and processes, such as stars, planets, galaxies, and the universe as a whole.

Astronomy is a natural science that studies celestial objects, such as stars, planets, comets, and galaxies, as well as the phenomena and processes that occur in outer space.

Carl Friedrich Gauss was a German mathematician and physicist who made significant contributions to many fields, including number theory, statistics, and electromagnetism.

The planet Neptune was mathematically predicted before it was directly observed.

Geodesy is a scientific discipline that deals with the measurement and representation of the Earth's shape, gravitational field, and other physical properties.

Joseph Ritter von Fraunhofer (; 6 March 1787 - 7 June 1826) was a German physicist and optical lens manufacturer.

Longitude is a geographic coordinate that specifies the east-west position of a point on the Earth's surface.